# # Jane#Tilson# A#thesis#submitted#in#partial#fulfilment#for#the#degree#of#Doctor# of#education#at#the#university#of#otago,#dunedin,#new#zealand#

Transcription

1 # # # # An#exploration#of#the#use#of#videotaped#teaching#and#dialogue#to# support#preservice#teachers#to#critically#reflect#on#their#emerging# teaching#practice# # # Jane#Tilson# A#thesis#submitted#in#partial#fulfilment#for#the#degree#of#Doctor# of#education#at#the#university#of#otago,#dunedin,#new#zealand# # November#2014#

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3 ABSTRACT# Howteachereducatorscansupportpreserviceteacherstocriticallyreflectontheirteachingpractice formstheprimaryfocusofthisthesis.internationally,teachereducationprogrammeshaveshown enormousinterestinsupportingpreserviceteacherstothinkcriticallyabouttheirteachingpractice. However,problematicallyforteachereducators,thetermsreflectiveandcriticallyreflectivepractice remainilldefinedandarefrequentlyusedinterchangeably.academicliteratureoftendescribesthe focusofreflectivepracticeatapersonallevel,forexample,one sbeliefs,assumptionsandpractices. Thisthesis,however,assertsacritically(reflectivepractitionerispreparedtofocustheircritiqueat bothapersonalandsocietallevel.furthermore,thisthesisarguesacriticallyreflectiveteachercan maketeachingdecisionsinformedbytheircriticalreflectionontheirpersonalbeliefs,formal theoreticalframeworks,andonthemultipleinstitutional,cultural,socialandpoliticalassumptions underpinningtheirpractice,inordertorationaliseafoundationforteachingpractice.thereflective practiceliteraturesuggestscriticallyreflectingonone steachingcannotbeassumedasaninnate skill.thisthesisinvestigatedakeychallengeforteachereducators,cancriticallyreflectivepractice betaughttoprospectiveteachers,andifso,how? Underpinnedbycriticaltheory,thisqualitativestudyexaminedwhetheraskingpreserviceteachers todiscusstheirpersonalbeliefs,formaltheoriesandwidersocietalfactorsaroundtheirvideotaped teachingpracticedid,ordidnotsupporttheircriticalreflection.inthefullstudy,acrossone academicyear,sixpreserviceteachersparticipatedinaninitialinterview,threeinterviewsusing theirvideotapedteachingasapromptforreflectionandanexitinterview.themainformofdata, audiotapedinterviewswereanalysedusingaqualitativedatamanagementtoolhyperresearch. Themesfromthatanalysisinformedagenericstructureusedtoreportparticipant sindividual findingsasvignettes. i

4 Asecondmajorfocusofinquiryforthisresearchprojectwasontheroleofdialogue,andhow dialoguedoes,ordoesnotsupportcriticalreflection.anumberofstudieshaveexamined audiotapedtranscriptsofpreserviceteachers speechormonologuearoundtheirvideotaped teaching.thisstudy,usingfairclough s(1995)modelofcriticaldiscourseanalysis,analysedhow dialoguebetweenthepreserviceteacherandtheresearcherdid,ordidnotsupportthemto criticallyreflectontheirvideotapedteachingpractice. Findingsfromtheprojectraisedimportantimplicationsforteachereducators.Thesewere:whileall sixpreserviceteachersdrewuponpersonalbeliefs,formaltheoryandwiderfactorstocritically reflectontheirteaching,theydidsoinsurprisinglyuniqueways,anditisamistaketoassumethat preserviceteacherswillindependentlymaketheorytopracticeconnections.whenusingvideotaped teaching,allparticipantsrecommendedhavingmultipleopportunitiestoviewthemselvesteach,in orderthattheycantargetareasoftheirpracticetorefine,andacrosstimeevidenceandown resultantchangesintheirpractice.reportedfindingssuggestthatunlesspreserviceteacherswere askedtodiscusswidersocietalfactorsimpactingtheirpractice,thiswasanareaatriskofremaining invisibleandsilent.whenmentoringpreserviceteachers criticalreflection,itappearsdialogueisa crucialbutcomplexfactor.thisthesishighlightsdialoguestrategiesthatdid,anddidnotsupport preserviceteachers criticallyreflectivedialogue.inconclusion,thethesisposesarangeofquestions tosupportteachereducatorstocriticallyconsiderhowtheymentorpreserviceteachers critically reflectivethinkingaroundtheirteachingpractice. ii

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS# Thecompletionofthisthesisistestamenttothesupportofmanypeople,towhomIgivemy heartfeltthanks. MysupervisorsDrSusanSandrettoandDrKerynPrattwhofromtheirdifferentresearch lensesandexpertisegaveinvaluableacademicsupportandfeedback.ithanksusanfor sharingherloveof,andwealthoftheoreticalknowledge,andforhergenerosityinsharing expertacademicoralandwrittenfeedback.ithankkerynforherpragmatism,practicality, problemtsolvingandexpertfeedbackacrosstheproject. Myeightparticipants(twointhepilotstudy,andsixinthefullstudy)fortheircouragein volunteeringforaprojectthatwasattimesbothchallengingandrewarding.ialsothank theirschools,staffandstudentswhoallmadethisprojectpossible. ThewiderUniversityofOtagoCollegeofEducationstafffortheironTgoingsupport,in particularfionaelliswhowithhumourtaughtmetokeepthethesisinperspective. ChrisGardenerforhergenerosityandexperthelpinformattingthethesispriorto submission. Myparents,JennyandIanfortheirongoingsupportandunfailingbeliefIwouldfinish. Inparticular,Ithankmyimmediatefamily;myhusbandPhilip,andKate,HenryandJack whosepatience,loveandsupportmadethisthesispossible. iii

6 TABLE#OF#CONTENTS# Abstract#...#i Acknowledgements#...#iii Table#of#Contents#...#iv Index#of#Tables#and#Figures#...#xi Chapter#One:#Introducing#the#Study#...#1 Reflective#and#critically#reflective#practice#...#1 Foregrounding#influential#contextual#factors#...#2 The#thesis#setting#and#context#...#5 Research#questions#...#7 Thesis#structure#...#8 Chapter#Two:#Critical#Theory#...#10 Introduction#...#10 Historical#genesis#of#critical#theory#...#10 TheFrankfurtSchool scritiqueofinstrumentalorscientificrationality...13 TheFrankfurtSchool'sconceptofImmanentcritique...16 TheFrankfurtSchool'sconceptofdialecticthought...18 Habermas#and#communicative#action#...#20 Habermasandtheidealspeechsituation...25 Critical#theory:#Its#impact#on#this#research#project#...#31 Chapter#Three:#Literature#Review#...#37 Introduction#...#37 Conceptualising#reflective#practice#...#38 The#theory/practice#divide#in#teacher#education:#A#false#dichotomy#...#41 International#changes#in#teacher#education#...#44 iv

7 Personalorpublic:Whosetheoriescount?...46 Distinguishing#critically#reflective#practice#from#reflective#practice#...#49 Can#critically#reflective#practice#be#taught,#and#if#so#how?#...#56 Typologiesofreflectivepractice...56 Toolswithwhichtoteachcriticallyreflectivepractice...63 The#use#of#video#technologies#to#support#reflective#practice#...#64 Theaffordancesofvideotechnologiesandhowtheyhavebeenused...64 Focusinginonteacheridentity...66 How,andinwhatwayshasvideotapingone'sownteachingpracticebeenusedtoscaffold criticalreflection?...69 Conclusion#...#76 Chapter#Four:#Methodology#...#79 Introduction#...#79 Data#construction#methods#...#81 Videotapedteachingepisodes...81 Interviews...82 Fieldnotes...83 Participant#selection#and#recruitment#...#84 Pilotstudyparticipantrecruitment...85 Fullstudyparticipantrecruitment...86 Data#construction#...#87 Pilotstudy...87 Fullstudy...89 Phaseone:Initialinterview(preTvideotapepromptedinterviews)...89 Phasetwo:Threeinterviewsusingvideotapedteachingtostimulatecriticallyreflectivedialogue...89 Phase(two:(Unstructured(and(semi7structured(interview(format(...(89 v

8 Phasethree:Exitinterviews(postTvideotapepromptedinterviews)...91 Data#analysis#methods#...#92 DataanalysisusingHyperTRESEARCH...92 HyperRESEARCH:CaseTbaseddesign...93 FirstcyclecodingusingHyperRESEARCH...94 SecondcyclecodingusingHyperRESEARCH...96 Vignettes...99 Vignettestructure Initial(interview((pre7videotape(prompted(interviews)(...(100 Beliefs,(theoretical(frameworks(and(videotaped(teaching(...(100 The(power(of(dissonance(...(101 Wider(factors(impacting(critically(reflective(practice(...(101 Using(critical(discourse(analysis(to(examine(shift(in(reflective(thinking(and/or(practice(...(102 Exit(interview((post7videotape(prompted(interviews)(...(102 Vignettemap Criticaldiscourseanalysis DataanalysisusingCDA CDA's(three(layers(of(analysis(...(106 Ethical#considerations#...#107 Trustworthiness#of#findings#...#109 Limitationofmethods Researcherreflexivity Summaryofmethodology Chapter#Five:#Insights#from#Preservice#Teachers'#Critically#Reflective#Practice#...#118 Participant#vignettes#...#118 VignetteofparticipantPA InitialinterviewTpreTintervention: IwanttoknowwhoIamasateacher (PA,II) vi

9 Beliefs,theoreticalframeworksandvideo:"IwanttobethebestteacherIcan"(PA,V3I) Thepowerofdissonance:LanguageTtoomuch,toolittle,orjustright? Analysingshift:"Doesn'tevenseemlikethat'sme"(PA,V2I) CDA:(Textual(analysis(and(discourse(practices(...(131 CDA:(Social(analysis(...(133 ExitinterviewTpostintervention:"Ilikemyteaching,watchingmyteaching,Iactuallylikemy practice"(pa,ei) VignetteTofparticipantPB InitialinterviewTpreTintervention:"IwanttoknowwhatIamdoingasateacher"(PB,II) Beliefs,theoreticalframeworksandvideo:"IwanttobetheteacherIneverhad"(PB,V1I) Thepowerofdissonance:"Thisclass,theyalmostknowiftheydon'tfinishit,there'sno worries"(pb,v2i) Analysingshift:TheoryT"YeahI,IthinkIvalueit"(PB,V1I) CDA:(Textual(analysis(and(discourse(practices(...(145 CDA:(Social(analysis(...(147 ExitinterviewTpostintervention:"IrealiseIdohavewhatittakestobeateacher"(PB,EI) VignetteTofparticipantPC InitialinterviewTpreTintervention:"Havingfeedbackcouldhelpmedevelopintobecominga betterteacher,that swhatiwant"(pc,ii) Beliefs,theoreticalframeworksandvideo: Teachinginvolvesaseamlessblendingoftheoryand practice (PC,V1I) Thepowerofdissonance:"IthinkitlookslikeI msortoflecturingthem"(pc,v1i) Analysingshift:"It'sanewwayofteachingandlearning"(PC,V3I) CDA:(Textual(analysis(and(discourse(practices(...(157 CDA:(Social(Analysis(...(157 ExitinterviewTpostintervention:"It smademeawareonaplacementyoucanactuallybe changingsomuch"(pc,ei) VignetteTofparticipantPD vii

10 InitialinterviewTpreTintervention:"Thebestwaytolearnfromteachingisseeingitfroman outsideperspective,andjustlookingin"(pd,ii) Beliefs,theoreticalframeworksandvideo:"IenjoypracticumthemostbecauseIseeitinaction, Iseewhat shappening,iseewhatworks"(pd,v1i) Widerfactorsimpactingcriticalreflection:"Likeourprincipalwassaying,'it saninteresting timetobecomeateacher,wealltookthat,weallknewthatwasabadtimetobecomea teacher"(pd,ei) Analysingshift: Noonecanrevealtoyouaught,butthatwhichalreadylieshalfasleepinthe dawningofyourknowledge"(gibran,1926,p.53) CDA:(Textual(analysis(and(discourse(practices(...(171 CDA:(Wider(discourse(practices(...(173 ExitinterviewTpostintervention:VideoT"Youseewhereyouaregoingwrong,youseewhat you redoingwell,andyoualwaystakesomethingawayfromit"(pd,ei) VignetteTofparticipantPE InitialinterviewTpreTintervention:Agreatopportunityformetoadvancemyteaching Beliefs,theoreticalframeworksandvideo:TheoryT"SoyeahpartsIagreewith,otherpartsI don t,andithinktheonlywaythatyoucanbecomeabetterteacherisbypractice"(pe,v2i) Widerfactorsimpactingcriticalreflection:"Thesechildrenareourfuture,andIdon tthink nationalstandardshelpsthat"(pe,v1i) Analysingshift:"Tobecomeateachertheyhadtoeducateme,asIhadeducatedthem"(PE,EI) CDA:(Textual(analysis(and(discourse(practices(...(184 CDA:(Social(analysis(...(186 ExitinterviewTpostintervention:VideoT"Bywatchingit,you reputtingyourselfinthechild s eyesinaway,seeingwhatthey reseeing,youdon tseethatwhenyou reteachingit"(pe, EI) VignetteTofparticipantPF InitialinterviewTpreTintervention:"Reflectionisoneofmystrengths,Iwanttolearnhowmaximise thebenefitsyoucangetoutofreflection"(pf,ii) viii

11 Beliefs,theoreticalframeworksandvideo:"Wearelifelonglearners,soIlikejustbeingcriticalof everything"(pf,v1i) Widerfactorsimpactingcriticalreflection:NationalstandardsT"Itdidn'thaveamassiveimpact onme"(pf,v3) Analysingshift:ItusedtobeT"HowamIgoingtoteachthesechildrenoverawholeday,nowit's Idon'thaveenoughtime"(PF,V2I) CDA:(Textual(analysis(and(discourse(practices(...(198 CDA:(Social(Analysis(...(199 ExitinterviewTpostintervention:"Examiningmygrowthhasbeenquitefascinatingtome"(PF, EI) Conclusion#...#202 Chapter#Six:#Reflections#a#Supporting#Preservice#Teachers'#Critically#Reflective#Practice#...#203 Praxis:#Personal#beliefs,#formal#theory#and#videotaped#teaching#practice#...#204 Personalbeliefs:Threekeyfindings Personalbeliefs:Keyfindingone Personalbeliefs:Keyfindingtwo Personalbeliefs:Keyfindingthree Formaltheory:Insightsfrompreserviceteachers Formaltheory:Keyfinding Widerfactors:Insightsfrompreserviceteachers Widerfactors:Keyfinding Videotapedteaching:Insightsfrompreserviceteachers Videotapedteaching:Keyfindingone Videotapedteaching:Keyfindingtwo Videotapedteaching:Keyfindingthree Dialogue,#videotaped#teaching#and#critically#reflective#practice#...#212 Howdialoguepromptedshiftsinpreserviceteachers'reflectivethinking,and/orpractice: Insightsfrompreserviceteachers ix

12 Implications#...#216 Implicationone:Praxisaroundbeliefs,theoryandvideotapedteachingsupportscritical reflection Implicationtwo:Itisamistaketoassumepreserviceteacherswilldrawuponformal theorytomakesenseoftheirpractice Implicationthree:WiderfactorsTmakingtheinvisibleandsilentopentocritiqueand debate Implicationfour:DialogueTacrucialbutcomplexfactorinsupportingpreserviceteachers criticalreflection Limitations#...#220 Future#research#...#222 Closing#remarks#...#224 References#...#226 Appendices#...#245 AppendixA:Definitionofcriticallyreflectivepracticeforthisresearchproject AppendixB:Analysisofarticlesrelatedtouseofvideotapedteaching(modifiedfromTrip& Rich,2012b) AppendixC:Pilotstudyinterview AppendixD:Fullstudyinitialinterview AppendixE:Fullstudyinterviewusingvideotapedteachingepisodes AppendixF:Fullstudyexitinterview AppendixG:HyperRESEARCHcodemap AppendixH:Informationandconsentformforprincipals(fullstudy) AppendixI:Informationandconsentformforschoolstudents(fullstudy) ( ( x

13 INDEX#OF#TABLES#AND#FIGURES# Table1:Typologiesofreflectivepractice...57 Table2:Pilotandfullstudytimelineanddatasources...80 Table3:Warpandweftcasebaseddesign...93 Table4:HyperRESEARCHsecondroundcodes...96 Table5:Vignettemap Figure1.Fairclough s(1995a,p.98)dimensionofdiscourseanddiscourseanalysis xi

14 CHAPTER#ONE:#INTRODUCING#THE#STUDY# Reflective#and#critically#reflective#practice# Forseveraldecadesreflectivepracticehasbeendescribedasthehallmarkofprofessional competenceforteachers,andisakeycomponentintheepistemologyofteachingpractice(hatton &Smith,1995;Larrivee,2008b;Schön,1983;Valli,1992;vanManen,1977;Zeichner,1987). Asa concept,reflectivepracticehasaseductiveallure,andformanypeoplethetermconnotesqualities thatfeeldesirable,usefulandinformative(larrivee,2009loughran,2002).thedesiretodevelop reflectivepractitionershashadconsiderableappealacrossanumberofprofessions,nomoreso thaninteachereducation(fendler,2003).inthefieldofteachereducationonecanhardlyfinda teachereducationbookorarticlethatdoesnotextolthevirtuesofreflectivepractice,andtheability toreflectonone'steachingpracticeisrecognisedasacentralcomponentinateacher'sdailywork (ElTDib,2007).Theneedtopreparereflectiveteachershasbecomeanaspirationalprofessional standardleadingmanyinitialteachereducationprogrammesinnewzealandandinternationallyto adoptreflectivepracticeasthefoundationoftheirprogrammes(brookfield,1995;calderhead, 1989;Hatton&Smith,1995;Larrivee,2000;O'Neill,2012;Thompson&Pascal,2012;Valli,1992;van Manen,1995).However,oneoftheproblemswithreflectivepracticeisthatitremainsanilldefined andillusiveconcept(bleakley,1999;eltdib,2007;jay&johnson,2002),andthereismuchdebatein theliteraturewhetherreflectivepracticeshouldfocusitscritiqueatapersonaland/orsocietallevel (Brookfield,1995;Carson&Fisher,2006;Fendler,2003;Fook&Gardner,2007;Giroux,2003; Habermas,1984a;Jay&Johnson,2002;Thompson&Pascal,2012;Yost,Sentner,&ForlenzaTBailey, 2000). Aproblemforteachereducatorsisthatwithinacademicliteraturethetermsreflectivepracticeand criticallyreflectivepracticeareoftenusedinterchangeably.thisthesisassertsthattheyaresimilar butdifferentterms,thatcriticallyreflectivepracticeasksteacherstocriticallyreflectuponpersonal 1

15 aspectsoftheirpractice,and(wider(social,cultural,historical,institutional,andpolitical)factors impactingtheirpractice.inthisway,teacherscanunderstandandrespondtothecomplexityin whichtheirdailyworkisimmersed. InmyworkasateachereducatorinNewZealand,anumberofpolicydocuments,forexample,the NewZealandTeacherCouncil'sGraduatingTeacherStandards(2007),andtheNewZealandTeacher Council'sCodeofEthicsforRegisteredTeachers(2004),allupholdreflectivepracticeasacherished professionalstandardtoworktoward.however,ashattonandsmith(1995)havesuggested, reflectivepracticeinitsmyriadofformscannotbeassumedasaninnatequality,ratheritisaskill thatneedstobetaughtandpracticedwithinandbeyondteachereducationprogrammes.thisthesis exploresakeychallengeforteachereducators,cancritically(reflective(practicebetaughtto prospectiveteachers,andifso,how? Foregrounding#influential#contextual#factors## Everythingcomesfromsomewhere,andoneofthegreatjoysofbeingateachereducatoristhe interconnectednatureofmywork.daily,iamsurprisedathoweachofthemultifacetedaspectsof myworkrecursivelyinformandrefineoneanother.thisisparticularlythecaseacrossmyrolesasa teacherandresearcher.inextexplorehowbothoftheserolesandmywiderlifeexperienceshave promptedthisresearchproject'scentralfocusofinquiry,howtosupportpreserviceteachers' criticallyreflectivepractice. MywiderexperienceslivingandworkinginEnglandpromptedmyinitialresearchinterestaround criticallyreflectivepractice.since2001,myfamilyhastwicelivedincambridge,england,whereon bothoccasionsiwasemployedasaprimaryschoolteacher.from2001t2002,iwasemployedasa literacyleaderinaprimaryschool,wheremyworkwasmadeaccountablethroughaninstrumental regimeofstandardisedassessmenttesting,commonlyknownassats.thiswasnewterritorywhere 2

16 Ihadtoattendcompulsorytrainingaroundhowtoadministernationalexamsinliteracyand mathematics,andtolearnhowtodemonstrateand(wherepossible)accountforvalueadded measuresinstudents'academicprogress.thestandardisedtestingregimewastightlyboundwith curriculumdelivery,whereeachinformedtheother.forexample,inmyyeartwoclassoffivettotsix yearolds,therewasasettextthatallofenglandusedfortheformalreadingcomprehensiontest, andtheformalwritingtestwasexaminedagainstaprescriptivesetofdevelopmentalskillslaidout inthecurriculum.havingtaughtinnewzealandprimaryschoolswheretherearenocompulsory standardisedexams,thepoweroftheregimeofnationaltestingcaughtmebysurprise.forinstance, evenattheyeartwolevel,studentswhowereabsentforscheduledtestingwerelatercaughtup, andallstudents(eventhoseknowntobeatriskoffailing)weretested.althoughstudents individual resultswerenotmadepublic,theirschool'sresultswerecomparedwithotherschoolsatalocaland nationallevel.teachersinthestaffroomoftenjokedthathousepricesintheirneighbourhoodwould riseandfallonthequalityoftheirschool'ssatsresults. MyexperiencesworkinginCambridgeatthistimepromptedmycriticalreflectiononanumberof issuesaroundsats,suchas:whydidsatsonlytestliteracy,numeracyandscience,andhowdid thataffectthewidercurriculum?howhadthestandardisedtestsbecomeweddedtoalockstep developmentalviewofknowledgeandskills?whomightbeadvantaged,and/ordisadvantagedby sucharegime?werethetestsprimarilyatoolofaccountabilitywithwhichtojudgeteachers, headteachersandschools?theprosandconsofengland'ssatsregimehavelongbeendocumented inacademicliterature,shiel(2003),west(2010),andberliner(2011)amongstothersprovideafuller discussionthanispossiblehere. In2006T2007,IagainworkedasaprimaryschoolteacherinCambridge,England.Ourfamilyarrived duringthemonthofmay,unbeknowntousafewdaysaheadofthenationalsatstesting.thehigh stakesnatureofsatsweresoprevalenttheheadteacherofthelocalprimaryschoolwasinitially reluctanttoenrolourdaughter,darewenegativelyimpacttheschool'sresults.inmyworkin 3

17 schools,iwasalarmedtoobservehowthelivedeffectsofthesatssystemonteachersappearedto haveintensified.youngteacherswithwhomiworkedweresodriventoachievethehighestpossible testscoresfortheirstudentsthatattimestheyreferredtostudentsintermsofcurriculumlevels ratherthanusingtheirname.dialogueinthefollowingmannerwasnotuncommon;"i'vegota2c butwithextrasplintergroupteachingwecanmakethembecomea3a".splintergroupteachingwas commonplace,whereheadteacherswouldhireadditionalstafftoworkwithstudentsinaparticular curriculumareawhentheythoughtitwaspossibletoelevatetheirtestscore.mypurposeinsharing theseanecdotesisnottopathologiseteacherswithwhomiworked,rathertocallintoquestionan instrumentalsystemofnationaltestingthatappearedtohavethreatenedteachers'core professionalism.myreflectivemusingsatthistimeshiftedtowardteachereducation.istruggledto understandhowyoungteacherswhohadrecentlygraduatedfromateachereducationprogramme appearedcommittedtoimplementinggovernmentalpoliciesinanapparentlyunreflectiveand uncriticalmanner.iresolved,onmyreturntonewzealandinmyworkasateachereducator,to activelyresearchstrategiestosupportourpreserviceteacherstobecomecritically(reflectiveoftheir ownpractices,andofwidersocietalfactorsimpactingtheirpractice. InNewZealand,Iwasfirstemployedasateachereducatorin2000,andinmyworkmentoring preserviceteachers'practiceinschools,ihadonanumberofoccasionsusedtheirvideotaped teachingtoscaffoldtheirreflectivethinking.ihadalwaysbeenstruckbyitsutilityinsupporting themtoseeandmakeconnectionsbetweentheoryandpractice.videotapedteachingalso appearedtosupportthemtotalkabouttheirpracticearoundhowbesttosupportstudents' learning,andtoexaminewhetherthosebeliefswereevident,ornotwithintheirpractice.frommy observations,videoallowedthemtoseeandcriticallyreflectontheirpracticeinawaynotordinarily availabletothem.theseformativeexperiencesinformedmydecisiontousevideotapedteachingas avehiclewithwhichtosupportpreserviceteachers criticallyreflectivepracticewithinthisproject. 4

18 Myworkasaresearcherinthefieldofcriticalliteracyhasalsoinfluencedthisresearchproject(see SandrettoandTilson2014).Overaperiodofthreeyears,workinginaTeachingandLearning ResearchInitiative(TLRI)fundedresearchprojectwithDrSandretto,weworkedwithagroupofNew ZealandteacherstocoTconstructwhatcriticalliteracymeantforclassroompracticeinNewZealand. Inshort,weunderstoodthatcriticalliteracyinvolvessupportingstudentstobecomeawarethat: textsaresocialconstructions;textsarenotneutral;authorsdrawuponparticulardiscourses (oftenmajoritydiscourses)andassumethatreaderswillbeabletodrawuponthemaswell; authorsmakecertainconsciousandunconsciouschoiceswhenconstructingtexts;alltexts havegaps,orsilences,andparticularrepresentationswithinthem;[and]textshave consequencesforhowwemakesenseofourselves,othersandtheworld.(sandretto,2006, p.24) Thiswork,withitscriticallens,stronglyinfluencedmydecisiontoadoptcriticaltheoryasthe underpinningtheoreticalframeworkforthisproject.criticaltheory,byitsverynatureresistsany blueprint,recipe,ordefinition(held,1980).inchoosingtopositionmyselfasacriticalresearcher,i understandthereisnoonetruthwaitingtobefound,rather,ibelievehowweperceiverealityis subjective,andthatourrealitiesaremultipleandshifting(denzin&lincoln,2005),andare dependentoncontext.withinthisproject,criticaltheoryasatoolallowedmetodescribe,explain andconstructdatainaparticularwaythatwasreflectiveofmypersonalbeliefsaboutthenatureof truthandhowtheworldworks(crotty,1998). The#thesis#setting#and#context# Thesettingforthisresearchprojectismycurrentworkplace,theUniversityofOtagoCollegeof EducationinthesouthislandofNewZealand.Participantsforthisprojectincludedeightpreservice teacherswhowereinthefinalyearoftheirthreetyearteachereducation(primary)degree.two preserviceteachersparticipatedinthepilotstudy,andsixparticipatedinthefullstudy. 5

19 Since2000,teachereducationinNewZealandhasbeenthesubjectofongoingchange,drivenby shiftingpoliticalprioritiesandagendas.acrossnewzealand,andinmyowninstitution,teacher educatorshavelivedandwitnessedmergersbetweenformercollegesofeducationanduniversities. Positioningteachereducationwithintherealmofuniversitieshasresultedinchangestostaff funding,deliveryofcontent,andmoregenerallytothecultureofteachereducation(smith& Tinning,2011).Inexthighlightwiderpoliticalfactorsaffectingboththeprimaryandtertiary educationsectorsthatoccurredduring2012whenparticipantsundertooktheirfinalyearschool practicumplacementinschools. InapreTbudgetspeechinMay2012,theNewZealandMinisterofEducationforewarnedchanges thathadpotentialtoprofoundlyimpacttheprimaryeducationsector.potentialchangesincluded: shiftingthestudentttotteacherratiofrom23to27studentstooneteacher,removingallspecialist technologyteachersfromintermediateschools 1,andthepossibilityofperformancebasedteacher paytiedtonationalstandardsdata.theministerdefendedtheproposedchangesonfiscalgrounds, stating''therealityisthatweareinatighteconomicenvironment.inordertomakenewinvestment inqualityteaching,wehavetomakesometradetoffs.weareoptingforqualitynotquantity,better teachingnotmoreteachers"(parata,2012,para.39).hertradeoffinvolvinghigherclasssizeswith thesubsequentlossofspecialistteachingjobspromptedoutragefromanumberofstakeholders.in aunitedfront,manyprincipals,boardsoftrustees,teachers,students,parents,andteacherunions, signedpetitions,engagedinprotestmarchesandlobbiedthegovernmenttostoptheproposed changes.ultimatelythelevelofprotestwassuchthattheministerabandonedherplanand announcedthefiscalsavingswouldbefoundelsewhere. WithinherMay2012preTbudgetspeech,theMinisteralsoannouncedlargeTscalechangestothe deliveryofinitialteachereducationprogrammeswithinnewzealand,whereapostgraduate 1InNewZealand,intermediateschoolshavespecialistteachers,andprovideteachinginall,orsomeofthe followingsubjects;hardmaterials,ict,foodtechnologyandgraphicsanddesign. 6

20 qualificationwouldbeintroducedasminimumrequirementforallprospectiveteachers.this proposalhadprofoundimplicationsforteachereducationproviders,prospectiveandcurrent preserviceteachersandwidereducationstakeholders,includingthenewzealandteacher'scouncil, schools,andsoforth.however,thepoliticalbacklashinitiatedbytheminster'sproposedchangesto theprimarysectorcausedhertolosemomentum,andinjune2012,sheannouncedsuchchanges wouldnotproceedintheimmediatefuture.iprovidethisinformationforreaders,itissignificantas itcapturesthebackdropagainstwhichparticipantsundertooktheirfinalyearpracticumplacements inschools,andbecamethepartialfocusoftheirdialoguepresentedinthediscussionoffindings chapter. Research#questions## Thisresearchprojectexaminedwhichstrategieswerehelpfulinsupportingpreserviceteachers criticallyreflectivepractice.inparticular,itexploredhowaskingpreserviceteacherstodiscusstheir personalbeliefs,formaltheoryandwider(social,cultural,historical,institutional,andpolitical) factorsaroundtheirvideotapedteachingpractice,did,ordidnotsupporttheircriticallyreflective practice. Withinthereflectivepracticeliterature,dialoguewithanotherhasbeenconstruedasasignificant factorinsupportingcriticallyreflectivepractice(hennessy&deaney,2009a;powell,2005;tan& Towndrow,2009;Yaffe,2010).However,littleattentionhasbeenpaidtowhichdialoguestrategies appearhelpfulinsupportingcriticallyreflectivethinking.thisresearchprojectinvestigatesthe followingprimaryresearchquestions: 1. Inwhatwaysdoesaskingpreserviceteacherstodiscusstheirpersonalbeliefs;formaltheory, andwidersocietalfactors(social,cultural,historicalinstitutional,political)inrelationto theirownvideotapedteaching,supportthemtocriticallyreflectupontheirpractice? 7

21 2. Acrossinterviewsusingvideotapedteaching,inwhatwaysdiddialoguebetweeneach preserviceteacherandtheinterviewersupport,ornotsupportpreserviceteachers'critically reflectivepractice? Thesis#structure# Inextprovideanoutlineofchapterstosupportthereadertomakeoverallsenseofthisthesis. WhileeachchapterisastandTalonedocument,thesuccessivechaptersarecomplexlyinterrelated andeachcontributesmeaningtothisproject'scentralfocusofinquiry.whilethechaptersmayat firstappearlinearindesign,inwritingthisthesisihaverepeatedlyrevisitedanddrawnupon materialfromeach,tobestcaptureinsightsaroundthisproject'sprimaryresearchquestions. Chapter(twofirstdiscussesthehistoricalgenesisofcriticaltheory,anddescribesthemesthat capturetheessenceofcriticaltheory.thethemeswere:thefrankfurtschool'scritiqueof instrumentalismorscientificrationality,andtheirconceptsofimmanentcritiqueanddialectic thought.inaddition,icriticallyexaminehabermas (1984a)theoryofcommunicativeaction.The chapterconcludeswithadiscussionofhowcriticaltheoryisrelevantto,andhasimpactedon,this project'sdesign. Chapter(three(investigatesthemultiplewaysinwhichreflectiveandcriticallyreflectivepracticeare understoodintheliterature,andwhilethesetermsarerelated,howtheyaredifferentconcepts.it examineshowperennialdebatesaroundthetheorytpracticedividehavefurtherconfoundedhow criticallyreflectivepracticeisunderstood.thechapterexploresmanifoldtaxonomiesandtools teachereducatorshaveutilisedtosupportpreserviceteachers'criticallyreflectivepractice.it concludeswithadiscussionofhowotherstudieshaveemployedvideotechnologiestosupport criticalreflection,andbyexaminingtheirstrengthsandlimitationsprovidesawarrantforthiswork. 8

22 Chapter(four(outlinestheresearchdesignforthisproject,anddemonstrateshowcriticaltheoryhas informedthisresearchprojectfromitsconceptiontoreportedfindings.itdetailsthemethods utilisedfordataconstructionanddataanalysis,anddiscussestheiraffordancesandlimitations.the chapterprovidesarationaleandmapforhowishapethediscussionoffindingschapter.ialso documentmyresearchprocedures,detailingethicalconsiderations,andhowisoughttoenact reflexivityacrosstheentireresearchproject. Chapter(fivepresentssixindividualvignettesshapedbyagenericstructure(detailedinchapterfour). Thevignettestructureisdesignedtorepresentparticipants'narrativesinwaysthatmirrortheir understandingsandexperienceoftheresearchprocess,andtoshedlightonhowteachereducators cansupportpreserviceteachers'criticalreflection.tohonourandrespectparticipants'voices,each vignetteonlyexaminesmaterialrelevanttothatparticipant. Chapter(six(reportskeyfindingsfromacrossallsixparticipants.Ithighlightsthisproject's contributionstothereflectivepracticeliterature,andidentifiesimplicationsforteachereducatorsin theirroleofsupportingcriticallyreflectivepractice.potentiallimitationsofthestudyareidentified, andthechaptersignalsrecommendationsforfutureresearch.thethesisconcludeswithabrief reflectivecommentary. 9

23 CHAPTER#TWO:#CRITICAL#THEORY## Introduction# Theoryshouldbeuseful,anddifferenttheories,liketools,allowustododifferentthings.For example,usefultheorycaninformourpractice,andrecursivelyourpracticemayinformthekindsof theorieswechoosetoaffirmorresist.theorymayalsoholdpotentialtomakerecommendationsfor thoseinterestedinworkingforamorejustandequitablesociety,thatistosay,theorycansupport ustoseebeyondthestatusquo,andcanchangesocietyinprogressiveways(anyon,1994;freire, 1999).FromamyriadofchoicesIselectedcriticaltheorytounderpinthisresearchproject.My choiceofcriticaltheoryisdeliberate,andasdiscussedintheintroductorychapterisreflectiveofmy personalbeliefsaboutthenatureoftruthandhowtheworldworks(crotty,1998). InthischapterIfirstdescribethehistoricalgenesisofcriticaltheory,andthenexaminethemesthat capturethecharacterofcriticaltheory.forcriticaltheorytobeuseful,itwillcountonlyintermsof theworkithasenabledmetodo(apple,1996).tomakethisexplicit,attheendofthischapteri discusseachidentifiedthemeintermsofitsrelevanceandpotentialimpactonthisresearchproject, andsummarisethestrengthsandlimitationsofcriticaltheoryforthisresearchproject. Historical#genesis#of#critical#theory# Historically,criticaltheoryisassociatedwiththeFrankfurtSchool;aresearchinstitutesetupinthe GermanWeimarRepublicin1923underthedirectorshipofanAustrianProfessor,CarlGrunberg. GrunbergwasthefirstselfTconfessedMarxisttoholdachairataGermanUniversity(Held,1980), andunderhisleadershipmarxismbecamethetheoreticalbasisandinspirationfortheinstitute s programme.grunberginitiatedadistinctbrandofmarxism,witharesearchemphasisonsocietal issuesandproblems;forexample,massculture,thefamilyandsexuality,topicstypicallybeyondthe 10

24 scopeoforthodoxmarxism(held,1980).whiletheearlyinstitutewasaffiliatedwiththefrankfurt University,independentfundinggavethegroupconsiderableacademicautonomyand independence.anindependentstatusmeanttheinstitutecouldbecome"anintellectualbulwark againsttheeliminationoflefttwingideas"(how,2003,p.13)andcontributedtothefrankfurt School'sacademicvitality(Held,1980;How,2003). In1929,MaxHorkheimerbecametheInstitute sdirectorandhisleadershipattractedanumberof scholarlyacademics,namelytheodorardorno,herbertmarcuse,andjürgenhabermaswhojointly contributedtothedevelopmentofcriticaltheory.underhorkheimer sleadershipthreekeythemes emerged.first,hesoughttopositionresearchinsocialphilosophyasaninterdisciplinaryaffair,with philosophers,sociologists,historians,andeconomistsallworkinginpartnershiptoexplore philosophicalquestions.horkheimerbelievedthatnoonebranchofthesocialornaturalsciences could"defendtheclaimthatitalonecoulduncovertheessentialsorthefacts"(held,1980,p.32). Second,Horkheimeremphasisedthestudyofsocialsciencemustmakeexplicitthe"setof interconnectionsthatmakepossiblethereproductionandtransformationofsociety,economy, culture,andconsciousness"(held,1980,p.33).inotherwords,tounderstandsocialliferequires consciousexplanationofthelawsoperativeinsociety,andthatthesearechangingratherthan static.thethirdkeythemewashorkheimer'srejectionoforthodoxmarxism.overtimetheinstitute wastodevelopaschoolofwesternmarxismthatbecameknownascriticaltheory(held,1980). Inordertograsptheaxesaroundwhichcriticaltheorydeveloped,itisnecessarytounderstandthe turbulenthistorical,politicalandsocialcontextinwhichtheinstituteformedandlived.inparticular theintertwaryearsweretopowerfullyshapeanddrivetheirformsofsocialinquiry.priortoworld Warone,theexcitementoftheRussianrevolutionhadspreadwellbeyondRussiaandtheunityand revolutionarypracticecentraltomarxistideologyseemedwithinreachofothereuropeanstates. However,the1920sand1930switnessedtheriseofFascismandNazisminItalyandGermany.The earlyfrankfurtschooltheoristshadhopedthatthegermanpeoplewouldmobilisetooverthrowthe 11

25 Naziregime(Jay,1973).WiththefailureoftheGermanpeopletomobiliseagainstHitlerandthe eventualregressionoftherussianrevolutionunderstalin'scontrol,theearlycriticaltheoristsbegan toquestionorthodoxmarxism.theywishedtoexplainwhythesocialistrevolutionpredictedbykarl Marxinthemidnineteenthcenturydidnotoccurasexpected. Theturbulentpoliticaleventsofthe1930snotonlyshiftedthegroup'sfocusofinquiry,butfor safetyreasonsnecessitatedtheirrelocationbeyondeurope.theopenlymarxistorientationoftheir work,andthefactthatanumberoftheirgroupwerejews,in1933forcedtheirtransferfromnazi Germany.Itwasnotuntil1953thattheirperiodofexileended.Prolongedexileandmajorpolitical eventsineurope,suchas,theriseoffascismandnazismandthefailureoftherussianrevolution, promptedtheinstitutetoquestiontherelationshipbetweentheoryandpractice.inhisreflections onnazigermanyandlifeinexile,marcuse(1960)wrote"thedivorceofthoughtfromaction,of theoryfrompractice,isitselfpartoftheunfreeworld.nothoughtandnoonetheory(alone)can undoit"(p.xii).inotherwords,marxism,thetheoryuponwhichtheinstitutewasfounded,had failedtopredictandwasunabletoexplaintheturbulentpoliticaleventsineurope.withthegap betweentheoryandpractice,newtheoryandnewactionswereneededtofindhopeforthefuture. TheinteractionofcomplexfactorspromptedtheInstitutetoshifttheirresearchfocustothe followingquestions,"howcouldtherelationshipbetweentheoryandpracticenowbeconceived? Couldtheorypreservehopeforthefuture?[And]inchanginghistoricalcircumstances,howcould therevolutionaryidealberealised?"(held,1980,p.20). TheInstitutehadcometounderstandthatresearchmustseektounderstandsociallifein"its ceaselessandeverchangingtransformations"(held,1980,p.30),withthegoalofmakingexplicit "theultimatecausesandprocessesoftransformationandthelawsaccordingtowhichtheyevolve" (Held,1980,p.30).Urgentquestionsarose,suchas,howwasitpossiblethatNazismandFascism hadcometodominatecentralandsoutherneurope?wasitpossibletograspwhathadcausedsuch aviolenttransformationofsocietyandthelawsunderwhichsuchchangehadevolved?the 12

26 Frankfurtgrouphadcometounderstandthatnoonetheorycouldclaim"ultimatevalidityintime andspace...onlyrelative,historicallyconditionedmeaning"(held,1980,p.30).inresponse,the InstitutewastodevelopareconstructedtheoryofMarxismthatbecameknownascriticaltheory. Criticaltheorysoughttoexplainadynamicandchangingsocietythatofferedfewguarantees,and wastobecome"aforceinthestruggleagainstdominationinallitsforms"(held,1980,p.35). Asdiscussed,criticaltheoryhasaparticularhistoricalprovidencethatstronglyinfluenceditsform andfunction.inthenextsectionihighlightkeyconceptscentraltoitscharacterdevelopedby membersofthefrankfurtschool.itisbeyondthescopeofthischaptertoengagewithallaspectsof criticaltheoryespousedbythefrankfurtschool.assuch,ihavechosenfourthemesthathave particularrelevancetomyresearchproject:theseincludethecritiqueofinstrumentalorscientific rationality,andtheideasaroundimmanentcritique,dialecticthoughtandcommunicativeaction. The(Frankfurt(School s(critique(of(instrumental(or(scientific(rationality( Horkheimer,inhis1937essaycalled'Traditional(and(Critical(Theory',firstpublishedconceptsthat weretobecomecentralandenduringtocriticaltheory.heposedacritiqueofinstrumental(or( scientific(rationalitythathebelievedhadcometorepresentoneofthecentralthemesofwestern thoughtthatextendedbackasfarasplato(giroux,1997).horkheimercritiquedmodernity'sblind faithinthepromiseoftheenlightmenttorescuetheworldfrom"thechainsofsuperstition, ignoranceandsuffering"(giroux,2003,p.30).whilehorkheimersupportedtheenlightenment's attemptstodemystifyreligionandmythology,thesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyhadseena growingemphasisonempiricallyderivedsocialscience,orpositivism.forthefrankfurtschool, positivismpresentedaviewofknowledgeandsciencethat"weddeditselftotheimmediateand celebratedworldof[observable]facts"(giroux,1997,p.40).underpositivism,aresearchercouldbe consideredaneutralobserver,abletocollectandquantifydatainavaluetfreeway,fromwhichthey couldmakeabsolutetruthclaims.horkheimerproblematisedthisnotion,believingthereisno 13

27 objectiverealitythatsocialtheoristscanneutrallyreflectupon.hebelievedthattoblindlyfollowan abstractmethodologywastoprecludeanyofthepolitical,cultural,socialforcesthatshapeboththe objectofstudy,aswellastheresearcherthemselves.horkheimer(1972)believedpositivismlimited "scientificactivitytothedescription,classificationandgeneralisationofphenomenawithnocareto distinguishtheunimportantfromtheimportantfromtheessential"(p.5).forcriticaltheorists,akey problemofadoptingapositivistrationality,ortechnicalviewofscience,isthatitdoesnotinviteone toquestionthedifferencebetweentheworldasitis,andthatwhichitcouldbe(giroux,1997).for HorkheimerandotherFrankfurttheorists,positivismhadstrippedbothknowledgeandsciencefrom itscriticalpossibilities.theircritiquewentbeyondpositivismasatheoryofscientificinvestigation, implyingthatpositivismfails"tounderstanditsowninvestmentinthestatusquo...inthatpeople everywherearetaughttoaccepttheworldasitis,thusunthinkinglyperpetuatingit"(agger,1991, p.109). PositivismfortheFrankfurttheoristshadseparatedsciencefromethics.Ethicscouldnotbe quantifiedormeasuredbyascientificformula,andthesuppressionofethicslimitsthepossibilityfor selftcriticism,and"morespecifically,forquestioningitsownnormativestructure"(giroux,2003,p. 33).Forcriticaltheorytomovebeyondthepositivistnotionofneutrality,itneededtobeableto acknowledgethenormativityoftheinterestsitrepresents.inotherwords,itmustdevelopa capacityformetattheory.asacriticalresearcheritiscrucialtounderstandthatcriticaltheoryitself isrepresentativeofparticularbeliefsandvalues.becausecriticaltheoryitselfisvaluetladen,itwill bydefaultincludeorexcludedifferentinterestsinanygivencontext.criticalresearchersneedto criticallyreflectonthehistoricaldevelopmentofsuchinterestsandtounderstandtheirlimitations indifferentcontexts.giroux(2003)describesthisasselftconsciouscritique;thatcriticaltheorymust critiqueitsownassumptions.forthefrankfurtschoolthiswastorequireamorefullyselftconscious notionofreason,atypeofreasonthat"embraceselementsofcritiqueaswellashumanwill,and transformativeaction"(giroux,2003,p.32).thus,criticaltheoryisselftconscious,notonlyofthe 14

28 coherenceofitsclaims,butalsoitscultural,socialandpoliticalcontext,againstwhichitmustdefend itself(edgar,2005). FortheFrankfurttheorists,"positivismbecametheenemyofreasonratherthanitsagent"(Giroux, 2003,p.32).ThissentimentwaswellcapturedbyFriedman(1981),"reasonundertheruleof positivism,standsinaweofthefact.itsfunctionistocharacterisethefact.itstaskendswhenithas affirmedandexplicatedthefact...underpositivism,reason,inevitablystopsshortofcritique"(as citedingiroux,2003,p.32).thatistosay,forthefrankfurttheorists,positivismhadreduced knowledgetothecurrentstateofaffairs,thestatusquo.whenreasonstopsshortofcritique,there isariskthatsocietycanonlyreproduceratherthantransformitself. Akeyquestionatthispoint,ishowtheFrankfurtschool'scritiqueofpositivismisrelevanttomy researchstudy?asacriticalresearcheribelievethatrealityissubjective,thereisnoonesingle interpretivetruth,ratherthatourrealitiesaremultipleandshifting(denzin&lincoln,2005),andare dependentoncontext.inotherwords,thereisnoonerightwayortruthinhowtoenacttheroleof ateacher.thisbeliefhadimplicationsformyinterviewswithpreserviceteachersaroundtheir videotapedteachingpractice.astheyindividuallyexploredanddiscussedtheirbeliefsand theoreticalframeworksinrelationtotheirvideotapedteaching,iexpectedtoheartheexpressionof multipleanddifferentteachingidentities.animportantcaveatinmyworkwasnottoseekto emancipatepreserviceteachersfromafalseconsciousness(lather,1986),butratherto acknowledgethemultiplenessanddiversityofhowtheyeachexpressedandunderstoodtheirrole asateacher.asacriticalresearcheriamawarethereisnoonedestination,oruniversaltruthand while"wemaysearchforforcesthatinsidiouslyshapewhoweare,wemustalsorespectthosewho reachdifferentconclusionsintheirpersonaljourneys"(kincheloe&mclaren,2005,p.308).there was,however,atensionwithinthisposition.ultimately,childrenareattheheartofthisproject.the decisionspreserviceteachersmakehavethepotentialtoadvantageand/ordisadvantagechildrenin theircare.importantly,criticaltheoryasksustoacknowledgethenormativityoftheinterestsit 15

29 represents.sowhatinteachingisnormative?teaching,farfromaneutralactivity,isapolitical, moralandethicalendeavourwithexpectednormsofprofessionalconduct.theseprofessional normsareenshrinedinpolicytoprotectchildren.forexample,thenewzealandteacherscouncil CodeofEthicsforRegisteredTeachers(NewZealandTeachersCouncil,2004),andtheirGraduating TeachingStandards(NewZealandTeachersCouncil,2007),explicitlylayoutstandardsof professionalconductforteachers.itisanimportantpointtoacknowledge,thatwhilecriticaltheory seekstoclarifytherulesandwiderforcesthatconstitutesociety,andtocritiqueandproblemtsolve thosemechanisms,itdoesnotpursuethosegoalsinanunfetteredway.justascriticaltheoryis normativelyguidedbymoral,ethicalandpoliticalconcernsrelevanttoitsfocusandcontext (Strydom,2011),inmyinterviewswithpreserviceteachersaroundtheirvideotapedteaching practice,iexpectedtheirteachingtobeguidedbynormativeprofessionalstandardstosafeguard children. The(Frankfurt(School's(concept(of(Immanent(critique( FortheFrankfurtSchool,akeycriticismofadoptingapositivistrationalitywasthatitdidnotinvite onetoquestionthedifferencebetweentheworldasitis,andthatwhichitcouldbe(giroux,1997). TheFrankfurttheoristsdesiredacriticaltheorythatisalwaysconcernedwithwhatcouldbe,and whatisimmanent 2 inwaysofmakingsenseoftheworld(kincheloe&mclaren,2005).forthe Frankfurtschool,theessenceofcriticaltheoryliesinitsunmaskingfunction,orhowgreatclaimsto truthneedtobecritiquedratherthanidolised(giroux,2003).immanentcritiquereferstothe assertionofdifference,orapreparednesstoanalysetherealityofasocialsubjectagainstother waysofbeing(giroux,2003).inotherwords,immanentcritiqueasksustoquestiontheeveryday, takentfortgrantedrealityinwhichourlivesareimmersed,andsupportsustoimagineavisionofthe notyet(villaverde,2004).immanentcritiqueexplorestensionsbetweentherealandthepossible, 2 AGermanTtoEnglishtranslationofthewordImmanentmeansinherentorintrinsic. 16

30 andunderstandseachisdependentupontheother.immanentcritiqueassumesamindtsetorhabit ofcriticality.inthecontextofimmanentcritique,criticalresearchersare"profoundlyconcerned withwhoweare,howwegotthisway,andwherewemightgofromhere"(weil&kinchloe,2003, ascitedinkincheloe&mclaren,2005,p.309).thismodeofconsciousnesslinksstronglywiththis researchproject'sprimaryfocus. Theprimaryfocusofthisresearchprojectistosupportpreserviceteacherstocriticallyreflecton theiremergingteachingpractice.itunderstandscriticallyreflectivepracticeinvolvesonebeingable tolocateoneself,bothpersonallyandprofessionally,inordertobeclearaboutthemultipleforces thathavecometodetermineone'sexistence(smyth,1989).akeyquestionishowtosupport preserviceteachers'understanding,thattheydonothavetoacceptprevailingideas,actionsor socialconditionsinwhichtheirteachingisimmersedasbeingunchangingorimmutable(hoffman, 1987).Rather,asteachers,theycandevelopamodeofconsciousness,viewing"socialfactsnotas inevitableconstraintsontheirhumanfreedom,butaspiecesofhistorythatcanbechanged"(agger, 1991,p.109).Itismybeliefthattheprocessofaskingpreserviceteacherstoarticulatetheirbeliefs abouthowchildrenbestlearn,andtheirtheoreticalframeworksinrelationtotheirownvideotaped teachingmaysupportthemtocriticallyreflectuponthediscoursesandwiderforcesthatframe(and possibly)constraintheirpractice.importantly,thisresearchprojectaimedtosupporttheiragencyto affirmorresistthoseparticulardiscourses,andtosupportthemtoimagineotherwaysofbeing.the dialoguegeneratedmayprovideawindowintowhatframestheirpractice,andpromptpreservice teacherstojudiciouslyandflexiblyconsidertheirpersonalbeliefsandtheoreticalframeworks,in ordertoprovideaconsciouslyconsideredrationalefortheirpractice.thekeyconceptfrom Immanentcritique,ofdevelopingamindTsetorhabitofcriticality,underpinstheprimaryfocusof thisresearchproject. 17

31 The(Frankfurt(School's(concept(of(dialectic(thought( DialecticthoughtissimilartoImmanentcritiqueinthatitalsosupportsanunmaskingofproclaimed truths(how,2003).simplisticallyunderstood,dialecticthoughtisaformofthoughtorargument thatexploresconnectionsbetweenopposingideas.itinvolvesthinkingbackandforthbetween differentviewsinthehopeoffindingathirdposition,whichencompassesbutalsotranscendsboth (How,2003).DialecticthoughtmovesbeyondImmanentcritiqueembracingbothcritiqueand theoreticalreconstruction(giroux,1997).whatdistinguishesdialecticthoughtfromimmanent critiqueishowitunmasksthe"insufficienciesandimperfectionsoffinishedsystemsofthought...it revealsincompletenesswherecompletenessisclaimed"(giroux,1997,p.43).thepurposeof dialecticthoughtwasnegative,to"breakdowntheselftassuranceofandselftcontentmentof commonsense,andtounderminethesinisterconfidenceinthepowerandlanguageoffacts" (Marcuse,1960,p.ix).Inotherwords,itspurposeistounmaskandcritiquethetensionsbetween existentsocialrealitiesandtheirwiderpossibilities.forthefrankfurttheorists,tracingthehistorical genesisofcommonsenseorconformistlogicwascrucialinordertounderstanditslimitationsin practice.dialecticthoughtembracestheconnectionsbetweenknowledge,poweranddomination.it understandsthatsomeknowledgeisfalseandthattheultimatepurposeofcritiqueissocialchange andsocialjustice.thenotionofdialecticthoughtisfundamentaltocriticaltheory.criticaltheoryis openlypolitical;itseeksnottojustreproducesocietyviadescription,buttounderstandsocietyand changeit(hoffman,1987).inotherwords,itisatheorywithpracticalintent.criticaltheoryrejects notionsofpositivisticneutralityandinsteadopenlytakessidesinseekingamorejustsociety.within criticaltheory,dialecticthoughtisdescribedasthepreconditionforhumanfreedom(giroux,1997). Humansarenotfreeunlesstheyareabletoreflectupon,critiqueandchangetheirexistentrealities. Theconceptofdialecticthoughtstronglylinkstothisresearchproject'sprimaryfocustosupport preserviceteacherstocriticallyreflectontheiremergingteachingpractice,andhasinformedits design.ithaslongbeenknownitismuchhardertocriticallyreflectonone'spracticealonethanin 18

32 collaborationwithothers(fazio,2009;harford&mcruaire,2008;hennessy&deaney,2009a).as suggestedbyday(1999), theproblemwithreflectingaloneisthatthereisalimittowhatcanbedisclosedandwhat informationcanbecollectedandreceivedbyanindividualwitha vested interestin avoidinguncomfortablechangeprocesses.othersareneededintheprocess.(p.226, originalemphasis). Thedesignofthisresearchprojectdeliberatelysoughtcollaborativedialogueandcriticallyreflective practiceinaninterviewsetting.itwasintendedthattheinterviewprocessusingthepreservice teachers'filmedteachingasapromptfordiscussionmightopenpossibilitiesfor"cogenerative dialoguing"(hennessy&deaney,2009a,p.618)and"collaborativetheorybuilding"(2009a,p.628). Inotherwords,bycollaborativelyanalysingteachingpracticecapturedonvideotapeandidentifying discoursesunderpinningthatpractice,itmightbepossibletocotconstructnewunderstandingsthat transcendedcommonunderstandings.byaskingpreserviceteacherstoarticulatetheirpersonal beliefsandtheirformaltheoryinrelationtotheirvideotapedteaching,thedialoguegeneratedmay providea"vehiclefor'thinkingotherwise'...[thatcan]detfamiliarisepresentpracticesand categories,tomakethemfeellessevidentandnecessary,andtoopenupspacesfortheinventionof newformsofexperience"(ball,1995,p.266).animportantelementofdialecticthoughtwasimplicit withinthisresearchdesign.askingpreserviceteacherstoarticulatetheirpersonalbeliefsandformal theoryaroundtheirvideotapedteachingpracticecalleduponthehistoricaloriginsoftheireveryday commonsenseorconformistlogic.incollaborativedialogue,theycouldexplorethestrengthsor limitationsofthatcommonsenseorlogic,inrelationtotheirparticularclassroomcontext.itwasmy hopetheinterviewsettinghadpotentialtogeneratedialoguethatcapturedthecharacteristicsof dialecticthought,embracingbothcritiqueandtheoreticalreconstruction(giroux,1997). 19

33 However,conductinginterviewswithpreserviceteacherswasnotwithoutitstensions;theideathat everyoneiscompletelyfreetopartakeindialogueisunrealistic(boler,2004;hobbs,2007).dialogue isnever"completelyfree,noropen,neitherauthenticnorgenuineinthecompletesenseofthese terms"(sandrettowithklenner,2011,p.49).theasymmetricalpowerrelationsbetweenthe preserviceteacherandmyselfrequiredcarefulreflexivity.inthemethodologychapteridiscusshow Isoughttomediateandworkproductivelywithasymmetricalpowerrelationshipsinaninterview setting. Habermas#and#communicative#action# Inextdiscussthefourthandfinalmajorconceptofcriticaltheorythathasparticularrelevanceto thisresearchproject.communicativeaction,authoredbyaleadingtheoristfromthefrankfurt School,JürgenHabermas,emergedfromparticularbeliefsofHabermas.Ifirstprovidebackground informationabouthabermashimself,andhowhisconceptionofrationalityunderpins communicativeactiontheory. JürgenHabermas,aGermanphilosopherandsociologist,isoneofthemostwidelyrecognised proponentsofcriticaltheory.habermaswasamemberofthefrankfurtinstituteofsocialresearch, andin1964succeededhorkheimerasprofessorofsociologyandphilosophyattheuniversityof Frankfurt.WhilemanyofhisideasoverlapwiththeFrankfurtSchool,Habermaswastoreshape criticaltheory,believingmanyofitsfeaturesweretoopessimistic.habermas,asearlierfrankfurt theorists,wascriticaloftheillusionsoftheenlightenment,namelytheriseofinstrumental rationalityjustifiedbypositivism.hecalledforan"enlightenedsuspicionofenlightenment,a reasonedcritiqueofwesternrationalisation"(habermas,1984a,p.vii).heaskedthatsocietywould critiqueandweighupboththeprofitsandlossesofsocalledwesternprogress,andthatreasoncan onlybedefendedbyacritiqueofreason.habermas,aswiththeearlierfrankfurttheorists,desired anunderminingofthebeliefthatscientificrationalityandreasoningarethesolefoundationsof 20