Contents. Wolhuter Lorraine Victimology : victimisation and victims' rights. xii xiv xvi. Acknowledgements Table of Cases Table of Statutes

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1 Wolhuter Lorraine Victimology : victimisation and victims' rights Contents Acknowledgements Table of Cases Table of Statutes xii xiv xvi 1 Introduction 1 Key developments in victimology, policy and practice 1 Overview of the book 6 PART 1 Victimology and victimisation 11 2 Theories of victimology 13 Introduction 13 Positivist victimology 14 Conservative criminology and the victims of predatory crime 17 Radical victimology 20 Marxist victimology: Corporate crime and its victims 20 Left realist criminology: a synthesis of theories of crime and victimisation 21 Feminist concerns with the victims of crime 23 Critical victimology 26 Criminology or sociology of harm? 28 Conclusion 30 Questions for further discussion 31 3 Victimisation 33 Introduction 33

2 The extent of victimisation 34 National crime victim surveys 34 Local crime surveys 38 Victims of corporate crime 40 Repeat victimisation 43 The impact of victimisation 44 Fear of crime 46 Secondary victimisation 47 Conclusion 49 Questions for further discussion 50 4 Women victims domestic terror and female victimisation 51 Introduction 51 Rape and sexual assault 51 The extent of rape and sexual assault 51 The impact on victims 53 Secondary victimisation 55 The rate of attrition 55 The court process 58 Male rape 59 Domestic violence 62 The nature and extent of domestic violence 62 Domestic violence against men: theoretical paradigm or paradox? 63 The impact on victims 65 Minority ethnic women 67 Secondary victimisation 68 Responses of the police and the CPS 68 The court process 72 Conclusion 72 Questions for further discussion 73 5 Victims from minority ethnic groups 75 Introduction 75 Ethnicity, victimisation and social distribution 75 Extent of'ordinary' criminal victimisation 75 Fear of crime 77 Racially motivated crime 78 Definition 78

3 Distribution of crime and impact on victims 79 Impact on victims 82 Victims in rural areas 83 Religiously motivated crime 84 The perpetrators of hate 85 Secondary victimisation 87 State victimisation: police stops and searches of minority ethnic persons 90 Conclusion 99 Questions for further discussion LGBT and elderly victims 101 Introduction 101 LGBT victims 101 Nature, extent and impact of LGBT victimisation 102 Secondary victimisation 106 Elderly victims 107 History of elder victimisation 107 Nature and extent of elder victimisation: senescent victimisation 108 Victimisation in private 109 Victimisation in private institutions 111 The hidden nature of elder victimisation in private: under-reporting levels 113 Victimisation in public 113 Conclusion 115 Questions for further discussion 116 PART II Legal responses to victimisation The development of a victims' rights discourse 119 Introduction 119 European jurisprudence on victims' rights 120 Council of Europe 120 European Court of Human Rights 122 Independent civil right to a fair trial 122

4 Incorporation of victims' rights/interests into defendant's right to fair trial 123 Positive obligations 125 English law and policy on victims' rights 128 The position prior to the Victims' Code 129 The Victims' Code 130 The role of the courts 131 Judicial review 131 Human rights jurisprudence concerning victims 133 Towards enforceable rights 139 Conclusion 141 Questions for further discussion Support and assistance 143 Introduction 143 Council of Europe instruments 143 'Official' agencies 144 Victim Support 144 Services 145 Advocacy 146 Community and inter-agency work 148 Witness Support 149 Witness Service 149 Witness Care Units 150 'Unofficial' agencies 150 Organisations responding to gender-based violence 151 Organisations responding to racism and Islamophobia 152 Organisations responding to homophobic and transphobic victimisation 153 Conclusion 154 Questions for further discussion Information, respect and recognition, and protection 155 Introduction 155 Council of Europe instruments 155 English law and policy 157 Pre-trial process 157 Police 158 Crown Prosecution Service 158

5 Court process 159 Witness Care Units 160 Court Service 160 Measures to reduce secondary victimisation in court 161 Release of offenders 169 Effectiveness of measures 170 Conclusion 171 Questions for further discussion Victim participation 173 Introduction 173 Forms of participation 174 Council o f Europe instruments 176 Victim participation in the UK 177 Decisions to prosecute 177 Decisions to accept pleas 178 Victim Personal Statements 179 VPS scheme 179 Opposing views on VPS 180 Family Impact Statements and lawyers for families of homicide victims 182 Victim participation in the US 183 Decisions to prosecute 183 Decisions to accept pleas 183 Victim participation in sentencing 184 Victims' lawyers 185 European models of victim participation 186 Party and non-party victims 187 Victim participation in the pre-trial stage 187 Non-party victims' lawyers 189 Victim parties 189 Auxiliary prosecution 189 Adhesion 193 Victim participation and defendants' rights 195 Conclusion 198 Questions for further discussion Victim compensation 199 Introduction 199

6 European provisions 199 Criminal injuries compensation 201 Origins and development 201 Criminal Injuries Compensation Act The Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme The Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme Proposals for reform 209 Compensation by the offender 210 Compensation orders 210 Reparation orders 212 Surcharges 213 Recovery orders 213 Conclusion 214 Questions for further discussion Victims and restorative justice 215 Introduction 215 Restorative justice paradigm 215 International and European provisions 218 Restorative justice in England and Wales 220 Government policy 220 Restorative justice initiatives 221 Victim-offender mediation (VOM) 221 RJ conferencing 222 Family Group Conferences (FGCs) 225 Reparation orders 226 Referral orders 227 Effectiveness of restorative justice for victims 228 Conclusion 231 Questions for further discussion Rights of victims from socially disadvantaged groups 233 Introduction 233 Gender-based victimisation 233 Human rights obligations 233 Rape 235 Police and forensic services 235 Crown Prosecution Service 236 Court process 237

7 Domestic violence 238 Domestic violence as 'real' crime 238 Support and assistance to victims 240 Minority ethnic victims 241 Racially and religiously motivated victimisation 242 Human rights obligations 242 Racially and religiously motivated offences 244 Criminal justice responses 246 Police and multi-agency partnerships 246 Crown Prosecution Service 248 Court process 249 Homophobic and transpbobic victimisation 250 Human rights instruments 250 Offences 251 Criminal justice responses 252 Police and multi-agency responses 252 Crown Prosecution Service 253 Elder abuse 254 Human rights dimensions 255 English law and policy 256 American law 256 Enforcement of state duties 258 Anti-discrimination legislation 259 Human Rights Act Conclusion 263 Questions for further discussion Conclusion - A victims' rights model for the criminal process 265 Bibliography Index